Bullock's False Toad (Telmatobufo bullocki)

Bullock’s false toad is a rare and elusive species, usually found under logs in temperate beech woodland. It breeds in fast-flowing water, where its tadpoles develop by scraping algae from rocks. Bullock’s false toad has been found hiding under logs. The stomach contents of the first individual described by scientists were examined and found to comprise the remains of cockroaches, other insects and spiders, as well as a considerable mass of plant material. This species has only been sighted once since 1992 and, despite occurring in the Parque Nacional Nahuelbuta, is threatened by wood extraction and the establishment of pine plantations, which causes the siltation of its streams.

Evolutionary Distinctiveness
Order: Anura
Family: Calyptocephalellidae
The Calyptocephalellidae family is a recently defined group of amphibians. Its four members, comprising three false toads (genus Telmatobufo) and the helmeted water toad (genus Caudiverbera) are all found in Chile, and were formerly included in the much lager Leprodactylidae family (commonly known as the “Leptodactylid frogs”). As a group, the Leptodactylidae has been reorganised recently and split into a number of different families, including the Calyptocephalellidae. It is now thought that the redefined Leptodactylidae diverged from all other amphibian groups about 60 million years ago, five milllion years after the extinction of the dinosaurs. However, it seems the Calyptocephalellidae diverged around 70 million years before the Leptodactylid frogs – 130 million years before the present day. They started to evolve separately from all other modern amphibians 30 million years prior to the extinct common ancestor that gave rise to the elephant and the mouse, when dinosaurs were still in abundance! The false toads are a tiny and little-known genus, all members of which are endangered (Telmatobufo bullocki is Critically Endangered, Telmatobufo venustusis is Endangered, and Telmatobufo australis is Vulnerable). Their closest relative, the Vulnerable helmeted water toad, is a giant among amphibians, with females reaching lengths of over 300 mm. It feeds predominantly on other frogs and toads, although it is also capable of consuming small birds and mammals. Its huge tadpoles can grow to lengths of 15 cm and take about two years to metamorphose. The Calyptocephalellidae family is therefore a highly evolutionarily distinct, unusual and endangered group of amphibians.
Description
Bullock’s false toad is a toad-like frog, with a stocky body, long slender legs, and webbed toes. Adults have a total body length of 60-80 mm. The fingers are not webbed and the tips of all digits are pointed and not dilated into discs. The skin along the back is covered in raised, rounded glands and prominent parotoid glands are present either side of the head just behind the eyes, appearing as large, oval lumps. The ventral skin is smooth. This species is mottled greyish-brown in colour, with darker spots corresponding to the round, elevated glands along the back.
Ecology
Very little is known about this species. Since its formal discovery in 1952, it has been seen very infrequently, and there are records of just one sighting since 1992. Adults may be found hiding under logs in temperate beech forest, and it is known to breed in fast-flowing streams. The tadpoles are free-swimming and feed by scraping algae from submerged rocks. Bullock’s false toad has been found hiding under logs. The stomach contents of the first individual described by scientists were examined and found to comprise the remains of cockroaches, other insects and spiders, as well as a considerable mass of plant material. This diet indicates that Bullock’s false toad has terrestrial (or ground-dwelling) feeding habits.

Habitat
The habitat of Bullock’s false toad is fast-flowing streams that flow through temperate Nothofagus (southern beech) forest. It can be found hiding under logs and it thought to be tolerant of moderate habitat destruction.
Distribution
This species is known from only a few locations in the Coastal Range, Nahuelbuta in the Arauco Province of Chile, between 37° and 38°S. It has an altitudinal range of 800-1,200 metres above sea level.
Population Estimate
Bullock’s false toad is extremely rare. Extensive fieldwork by several herpetologists within the range of this species between 1992 and 2002 has turned up only a single adult (in 2002).
Population Trend
This species is thought to be in decline by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Status
Bullock’s false toad is listed as Critically Endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, because its area of occupancy is probably less than 500 km sq., with all individuals in fewer than five locations, and there is a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat in Arauco Province, Chile.
Threats
The major threat to the species is wood extraction from its temperate beech forest habitat and the establishment of pine plantations, which causes siltation of streams, making it difficult for the tadpoles to feed.
Conservation Underway
Bullock’s false toad occurs in the Parque Nacional Nahuelbuta, although there are no specific conservation measure ongoing for this species, and additional protection and maintenance of existing habitat is still urgently required.

Purple frog (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis)

The purple frog is the sole representative of an ancient lineage of frogs that has been evolving independently for over 130 million years. Its closest relatives are the Seychelles frogs, the ancestors of which were present on the Indo-Madagascan land mass with the purple frog’s predecessors when it broke away from the supercontinent of Gondwana 120 million years ago. Formally discovered in 2003, the purple frog spends most of the year underground, surfacing only to breed during the monsoon. It was the first new family of frogs to be discovered since 1926. This species is threatened by ongoing forest loss for coffee, cardamom and ginger plantations.

Evolutionary Distinctiveness
Order: Anura
Family: Sooglossidae
The purple frog is described as a “living fossil” and is the only surviving member of an ancient amphibian family called the Nasikabatrachidae. Up until around 120 million years ago in the early Cretaceous period, India was joined to the eastern part of the ancient southern supercontinent Gonwana, which subsequently split apart into Australia, Antarctica, India, Madagascar and the Seychelles over millenia of movement of the earth’s plates. The closest relatives of the purple frog are four tiny frog species found in the Seychelles in the Sooglossidae family. In their phylogenetic study of the purple frog in 2003, S. D. Biju and Franky Bossuyt (respectively of the Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Kerala and the Free University of Brussels) reported that the origin of the Sooglossidae/Nasikabatrachidae lineage occurred around 182 million years ago. It is thought that these two amphibian lineages diverged an estimated 134 million years ago form a common ancestor that inhabited Gondwana prior to the break up of this land mass. These frogs were therefore sharing the earth with the dinosaurs for 70 million years and started to evolve independently before the common ancestor of the elephant and the human.The ancestors of the Seychelles frogs and the purple frog were present on the Indo-Madagascan land mass as it broke away from Gondwana and drifted through the movement of the earth’s plates for over 50 million years. Around 65 million years ago the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary, the Seychelles split away from India and the ensuring plate movements separated the purple frogs from their closest relatives by around 2,500 km of Indian Ocean. The purple frog is therefore the only representative of a lineage that has been evolving independently for over 130 million years, has survived the break up of a continent and the extinction of the dinosaurs.

Description
The purple frog is a relatively large burrowing frog with a distinct, bloated or plump appearance. The head is conical and short in comparison with the rest of the body, and has a white, protruding snout. The fore- and hind-limbs are short, ending in partially webbed feet with rounded toes and each hind foot possesses a large, white wart-like growth, most likely used for digging. The eyes are small, rounded, and have a horizontal pupil. This species has smooth, dark purple skin that fades into grey along the stomach. Purple frogs reach a total length of about 7 cm.
Ecology
The purple frog spends most of the year underground, surfacing only for about two weeks during the monsoon season in order to mate. It lives 1.3-3.7m below ground and the frog's reclusive fossorial (digging or burrowing) lifestyle is what caused the species to escape earlier detection by biologists. It comes to the surface for a few weeks a year to breed in temporary and permanent ponds and ditches. During the breeding season, local people reported seeing purple frogs in the vicinity of water pools or at the sides of the swelling streams in pairs clasping each other, especially at the beginning of the monsoon season. During mating, the male clasps the female from behind just above the legs in a behaviour termed “inguinal amplexus”. The bloated shape of both male and female purple frogs, and the smaller size of the male, may mean that males partially glue themselves onto females using sticky skin secretions, as occurs in “short-headed frogs” in the family Brevicipitidae. Eggs are laid in water that hatch into tadpoles, often in ponds close to streams.The diet of the purple frog predominantly consists of termites, and this species has a narrow mouth with a small gape, preventing it from catching and consuming larger prey items. Its strong head and pointed snout permits it to penetrate underground termite niches, and a fluted tongue may allow this species to suck up its prey from subterranean burrows. With its poor vision, this frog presumably depends on smell and tactile cues to detect and locate prey. It also consumes ants and small worms.The burrowing and mound-building activities of termites increase the rate of percolation of rainwater and aeration of both the top and subsoil keeping the underground soil temperature low and the moisture content high. It may therefore benefit burrowing amphibians like the purple frog to live in close proximity to termite colonies, which improve the quality of their habitat as well as providing a food source. In India, the purple frog from the southern Western Ghats may be the only known amphibian species that is a fully underground forager. All other burrowing frogs are either open burrow feeders or diurnal burrow dwellers that are open ground feeders in the night. Purple frogs require damp, loose soil to borrow into, and may dig themselves fully into appropriate soil within 3 to 5 minutes. When placed on hard ground, pebbled- or gravel-strewn soil, or areas with a thick mat of weeds, purple frogs are unable to borrow effectively and go in search of cover. The hind limbs have strong feet with wart-like structures that are primarily used for digging. This frog burrows downwards using its hind limbs like spades, throwing the soil over its back. They rest underground in a horizontal position with the limbs tucked under the body, although they do not remain idle underneath the soil, especially when foraging for their prey.
Habitat
The first purple frog was officially discovered in disturbed secondary forest near a cardamom plantation. It has also been found in disturbed secondary forest contiguous with montane evergreen forest. It presumably occurs in undisturbed forest as well and apparently does not survive in open, completely clear habitats. This species requires fairly loose, damp, well-aerated soil, especially in close proximity to termite colonies.

Distribution
This species is endemic to the Western Ghats in India, and is known from only two localities in the Idukki District in the Cardomom Hills, Kerala at an altitudinal range of 850 - 1,000m above sea level. These two areas are Kattapana and near Idukki town. It might occur more widely, but it seems that other reported localities probably refer to currently undescribed species.
Population Estimate
The purple frog is thought to be a rare species, although it is very hard to find which makes any population estimate difficult to determine. Only 135 individuals have so far been observed, and of these only three have been females. The plantation workers within the range of this species have reported that this frog is uncommonly found when they are cutting trenches during the monsoon period (June to October).
Population Trend
The purple frog is thought to be in decline by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Status
The purple frog is listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species because its extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km sq., all individuals found are in fewer than five locations, and there is a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat in the Cardomom Hills, Western Ghats.
Threats
The main threat to the purple frog is believed to be ongoing forest loss for coffee, cardamom, ginger and other species for cultivation.
Conservation Underway
It has not yet been found in any protected areas, although its range is an integral part of the peripheral hilly area that adjoins the Silent Valley National Park. There are no specific conservation measures ongoing for this species.

Archey's frog (Leiopelma archeyi)

Archey’s frog is almost indistinguishable from the fossilised remains of frogs that lived 150 million years ago, leading to its description as a “living fossil”. One of the world’s most primitive frogs, it has bizarre features such as tail-wagging muscles (despite having no tail to wag) and no eardrums. It therefore does not communicate by sound, but is instead thought to employ scent. The male guards the eggs in moist nests and the tailed froglets that hatch out crawl onto the father’s back where they remain for several weeks whilst they develop. It is primarily threatened by a virulent fungal disease (chytridiomycosis), as well as introduced predators such as rats and mice.

Evolutionary Distinctiveness
Order: Anura
Family: Leiopelmatidae
The prehistoric New Zealand frogs (of the family Leiopelmatidae) are the most ancient and primitive frogs in the world, diverging from all other frog and toad lineages over 200 million years ago in the former southern supercontinent of Gondwana. The ancestor of these species actually colonised New Zealand over 80 million years ago, when it was still part of the Gondwana, and the Leiopelmatidae shares a similar biogeographic distribution to several other ancient plant and animal groups, such as southern beeches, tuatara, and the giant extinct moa. This means New Zealand frogs started to evolve independently as a lineage before the formation of the Atlantic Ocean, over 50 million years before the first bird appeared in the fossil record. They are part of a small suborder of frogs called the “archaeobatrachia” or ancient frogs. The archeobatrachia comprise less than 7% of all of the frogs and toads, including some of the most evolutionarily distinct amphibian species. Each one therefore represents a disproportionately high amount of distinct evolutionay history in today’s biodiversity.The four surviving species of New Zealand frog are found only in New Zealand, and these species are regarded as “living fossils” since they are very similar to frog fossils found in Queensland, Australia from the late Jurassic period around 150 million years ago. Fossil records actually show that New Zealand had seven leiopelmatid frog species just 1000–2000 years ago. The scientific names of the three extinct species are Leiopelma auroraensis, Leiopelma markhami and Leiopelma waitomoensis, which was previously the largest species of New Zealand frog at a total length of 100 mm – over twice the size of the largest New Zealand frog species alive today. These species were considerably larger, squat and toad-like leiopelmatids, which probably walked rather than hopped, and were found both on New Zealand’s North Island (L. markhami and L. waitomesis) and South Island (L. markhami and L. aurorensis). It is likely that all were wiped out by the (presumably accidental) introduction of the Pacific rat (Rattus exulans) by Polynesian settlers less than 1,000 years ago. The surviving species are restricted to the vicinity of North Island – Archey’s New Zealand frog and Hochstetter’s New Zealand frog occur only on the North Island, while the Maud Island frog and Hamilton’s frog are restricted to Maud Island in the Marlborough Sounds and Stephen’s Island in Cook Strait. A primitive feature retained by Leiopelma frogs is their tail-wagging muscles (known scientifically as the caudalipuboischiotibialis muscles), although they no longer have a tail to wag. Other unique or unusual features of these frogs include the presence of elongate pieces of cartilage in the muscles of the abdomen (also called “inscriptional ribs”), round pupils, and an abnormally high number of vertebrae, or back bones – they have 9 presacral vertebrae with atypical concave ends, instead of the eight found in all other living frogs except their closest relatives, the tailed frogs from north-western U.S.A and Canada. Also, they cannot croak like most other species of frog (instead letting out a thin high-pitched squeak) because eardrums and vocal sacs have never developed in this group of frogs. Where aquatic in nature, they also swim differently to all other frogs (apart from the tailed frogs), in that they use alternate leg kicks which cause their heads to move from side to side during swimming in a rather energy inefficient way. It is thought that New Zealand frogs began their terrestrial (or ground dwelling) lifestyle before advanced swimming evolved in frogs. In keeping with their place as four of the world’s most primitive frogs, the way in which the skull remodels during metamorphosis within the egg, where the tadpole changes into a froglet, is said to be intermediate between a salamander and the tailed frogs (which are the next most primitive frogs on earth). Archey’s frog possesses a further unusual trait which it does not share with all the other members of its family. In several populations of this species, females have been found to have 22 pairs of chromosomes (the structures found in the nucleus of a cell that are each composed of a very long, continuous strand of DNA, along which all the genes of the organism are found) plus a unique W-chromosome, which is type of sex determining chromosome similar to that found in birds. Males lack a sex chromosome entirely and only possess the standard 22 pairs of chromosomes. These populations typically have many extra, superfluous chromosomes as well. This additional genetic information does not seem to play any role in the individuals but is apparently genetic “junk”.

Description
Archey’s frog is the smallest species of New Zealand frog, with females measuring about 37 mm snout to rear in total length and males being slightly smaller at 31 mm. The species varies in colour from mainly green (rarely) through combinations of green and brown to mainly brown. Some individuals from the Whareorino part of the species’ range may be quite brightly coloured with pinks and brick reds complementing the background colour. The skin has defensive granular glands, which are concentrated into discrete patches arranged down the back and sides in about six longitudinal rows. These glands are also found on the upper surface of the legs, feet and arms. There is no webbing in the hind toes and no eardrum.
Ecology
This species is terrestrial (or ground dwelling) but may climb several metres into bushes and trees during the night, before returning to their ground-level retreats at dawn. They are chiefly nocturnal (or night-active), spending most of the day hidden under stones or logs away from streams and creeks. The Whareorino Forest population in the King Country (discovered in 1991) may be more arboreal (tree-dwelling) than the Coromandel populations. It occurs in the same areas (also known as occurring “sympatrically”) with another New Zealand frog species called Hotchstetter’s frog (EDGE rank 38).Mating takes place in shallow depressions hidden beneath logs or stones, where it is cool and moist. The male clasps the female around the waist (a behaviour termed “inguinal amplexus”) and fertilises her eggs are they are laid. Egg clusters are later laid in strings and each egg is unpigmented and measures from 8–11 mm in diameter. Reproduction in Archey’s frog is therefore independent of a water body. This species is able to withstand substantial desiccation, and studies have found that frogs dehydrated to 92% of their body weight rehydrated to 99% over four hours when placed on wet foliage. Sometimes Archey’s frogs, particularly the males, occupy the oviposition or egg-laying site for several weeks prior to the laying of eggs, and also guard the eggs until they hatch. Froglets do not reach maturity until at least 3 to 4 years and New Zealand frogs do not go through an external free-living tadpole stage, but instead develop totally within a gelatinous capsule in the egg, with the young hatching as tailed froglets that climb onto the father’s back for protection. Male Archey's frogs carry the infants on their back and care for them for several weeks until metamorphosis is nearly complete, i.e. all adult characteristics (including tail loss and the ability to feed independently) have developed. Such care may keep the young moist, reduce predation and possibly reduce fungal or microbial infections. Archey’s frogs generally become active at night and feed on small insects, worms and other invertebrates. They do not produce a loud breeding call but they do squeak or chirp when annoyed, distressed or engaging in sexual activity. They have no true vocal sacs or eardrums so the dominant frequencies and overtones of call notes depend on resonance frequencies in the head and body of these frogs rather than any vibration frequency of the vocal chords. Their defensive mechanisms include remaining motionless for long periods of time and assuming a stiff-legged stance, rearing up and extending the legs. New Zealand frogs are also known to have poison glands around their heads which may deter attack, at least by local predators. Introduced rats have been found to not consume the head of Archey’s frogs, therefore avoiding ingestion of the areas of the frog containing poison glands. Lastly, Archey's frogs are highly camouflaged and this, combined with their nocturnal habits and lack of vocalisations, makes them extremely hard to locate.
Habitat
This is a terrestrial (ground dwelling) species, occurring mostly at higher altitudes in forested ranges and more open sub-alpine scrub. Archey’s frog occupies a broad range of forest environments and is not closely associated with watery habitats such as lakes, ponds or streams.
Distribution
There are two main concentrations of this North Island New Zealand frog species – one in Coromandel Peninsula and the other in the Whareorino Forest, west of Te Kuiti. Archey’s frogs prefer to live at a relatively high altitude from about 400-1000 metres above sea level.

Population Estimate
Total wild population is currently unknown. Formerly, this species was recorded in the tens of thousands, but declines since 1996 have reduced the numbers throughout their range. Night-time search studies of Whareorino Forest published in 2003 have revealed the density of Archey’s frog to be 0.28 frogs per m2.
Population Trend
Archey’s frog is thought to be in decline by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The decline was first noted in 1996 when one study of a population on the Tapu Ridge indicated a population decline of 88% (433 frogs down to 53 frogs) over the period 1996-2002.
Status
Archey’s frog is listed as Critically Endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species because of a drastic population decline, estimated to be more than 80% over the last ten years, inferred from the apparent disappearance of most of the population, probably due to the disease chytridiomycosis caused by the chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis).

Threats
Systematic field surveys carried out since the 1970s indicate that a marked decline of Archey's frog occurred in the central Coromandel Range over 1996-98. On Tapu Ridge this species was formerly abundant but had become scarce by December 1996. At Tokatea Saddle, 30 km north, no equivalent decline was detected in February 1997, but Archey’s frog was very scarce by November 1998. It is currently unknown exactly why Archey’s frog has declined so precipitously across much of its range. The most likely explanation appears to be disease of some kind, in particular chytridiomycosis caused by the chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) that has been reported as a frog pathogen in many areas of the world. Chytrid fungus infection was first identified in this species in September 2001 from a specimen collected June 2001 at Te Moehu in the Coromandel Peninsula. Several factors, including the severity and rapidity of the population crash, the geographic spread of the decline (from south to north), and the discovery of frogs with chytridiomycosis, all point to disease being the major cause of the decline of Archey’s frog. Other probable threats to this species include climate change (especially drought - 29 dead individuals were collected in Tokatea Saddle in January 1995 during a drought); disturbance of habitat by researchers; illegal collection of frogs; impact of chemical such as biocides; and other factors that have not yet been identified. The impact of introduced predators such as rats and mice may have also seriously affected wild populations of Archey’s frog. Five dead individuals found in the Whareorino Forest showed signs of rat predation. However, the rats left the head of their victims intact, which strongly suggests that the defensive glands around the head of the frog successfully deterred the predator from finishing their meal. Other anecdotal evidence suggests that indigenous (local non-introduced) predators as varied as the giant kokupu, tuatara and weka may avoid New Zealand frogs, possibly as a result of their poison glands.
Conservation Underway
New Zealand has been protecting its indigenous amphibian species since 1921, when legislation was passed making it an offence to harm or remove frogs from their environment. The New Zealand Department of Conservation (DOC), acting through its Native Frog Recovery Group and Native Frog Recovery Plan, administers the conservation management of Archey’s frog and issues permits for appropriate species research. The DOC employs a frog ecologist who is responsible for the conservation and management plans concerning Archey’s frog populations. They monitor the frog populations, survey for outbreaks of disease, and conduct emergency translocations when necessary. The DOC also has a collaborative programme with Auckland Zoo which has recently established a new facility for captive breeding and maintaining Archey’s frog, established in October 2004 in order to generate back-up populations in the event of some ecological catastrophe wiping out the wild population. This programme has been successful in producing more than 6 clusters of eggs laid in captivity, and a resident veterinary scientist is conducting research here on native frog diseases. Auckland Zoo is also working in collaboration with a scientists from Land Care Research and Otago University on hormone profiling in Archey’s frogs to allow identification of gender, which would be a great asset in captive breeding. The recent declines of Archey’s frog and the positive identification of chytrid fungus has stimulated urgent research and management of the species, including pathology, population monitoring, captive management and molecular research. This involves the DOC and Massey, Otago and Victoria Universities. The Carter Holt Harvey Native Frog Research Centre at Aukland Zoo works with the Department of Conservation to seek a cure for the chytrid fungus currently threatening frogs around the world. Additionally, a research group at the University of Otago is investigating methods of treating chytrid fungus infection, studying how this fungal pathogen spreads from one frog to another in a terrestrial environment, and screening for agents that can be used to kill Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the environment.Population monitoring in the wild of New Zealand frogs has been coordinated by Professor Ben Bell at Victoria University, Wellington. This is the longest data set in the world for monitoring a population of frogs, as Professor Bell has been studying the population demographics of Archey’s frogs for the last 40 years. This research is ongoing. Conservation actions in the wild also consist of protecting habitat and removing mammalian predators (such as rats and mice) from frog habitat, or ensuring that they do not gain or increase access to existing frog populations. Further introduced frog species (there are already 3 species of non-native Australian treefrogs established in New Zealand) may out-compete native New Zealand frogs and/or introduce more virulent diseases, so it is also a priority of the DOC to ensure against the accidental introduction of other amphibian species. In 1999, Australian banjo frog Limnodynastes dumerilii tadpoles were reported from the Waitakeres. Several thousand tadpoles for this species were subsequently found and destroyed.